Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier frequency among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band. The changes are controlled by a code known to both transmitter and receiver. FHSS is used to avoid interference, to prevent eavesdropping, and to enable code-division multiple access (CDMA) communications.
Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming unless the adversary has knowledge of the frequency-hopping pattern. Military radios generate the frequency-hopping pattern under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key (TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share in advance. This key is generated by devices such as the KY-57 Speech Security Equipment. United States military radios that use frequency hopping include the JTIDS/MIDS family, the HAVE QUICK Aeronautical Mobile communications system, and the SINCGARS Combat Net Radio, Link-16.
Slow Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Pdf Free
The overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. But because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the instantaneous interference bandwidth is really the same. While providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach reduces the degradation caused by narrowband interference sources.
One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel, and the segment can also have a checksum for integrity checking and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of frequency-hopping patterns, so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table.
The earliest mentions of frequency hopping in open literature are in US patent 725,605, awarded to Nikola Tesla on March 17, 1903, and in radio pioneer Jonathan Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915),[4][a] although Zenneck writes that Telefunken had already tried it. Nikola Tesla doesn't mention the phrase "frequency hopping" directly, but certainly alludes to it. Entitled Method of Signaling, the patent describes a system that would enable radio communication without any danger of the signals or messages being disturbed, intercepted, interfered with in any way.[5]
The German military made limited use of frequency hopping for communication between fixed command points in World War I to prevent eavesdropping by British forces, who did not have the technology to follow the sequence.[6] Jonathan Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy was originally published in German in 1908, but was translated into English in 1915 as the enemy started using frequency hopping on the front line. Zenneck was a German physicist and electrical engineer who had become interested in radio by attending Tesla's lectures on "wireless sciences". Wireless Telegraphy includes a section on frequency hopping, and, as it became a standard text for many years, it probably introduced the technology to a generation of engineers.[5]
During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY, which incorporated spread spectrum in a single frequency context. But SIGSALY was a top-secret communications system, so its existence was not known until the 1980s.
A practical application of frequency hopping was developed by Ray Zinn, co-founder of Micrel Corporation. Zinn developed a method allowing radio devices to operate without the need to synchronize a receiver with a transmitter. Using frequency hopping and sweep modes, Zinn's method is primarily applied in low data rate wireless applications such as utility metering, machine and equipment monitoring and metering, and remote control. In 2006 Zinn received U.S. Patent 6,996,399 for his "Wireless device and method using frequency hopping and sweep modes."
Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) as used in Bluetooth improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.
But if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then AFH's strategy of "bad channel removal" may not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), they are mutually interfering and AFH's strategy fails to avoid this interference.
The problem of dynamic interference, gradual reduction of available hopping channels and backward compatibility with legacy Bluetooth devices was resolved in version 1.2 of the Bluetooth Standard (2003). Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.
This application note is a tutorial overview of spread-spectrum principles. The discussion covers both direct-sequence and fast-hopping methods. Theoretical equations are given to allow performance estimates. Relation to CDMA and TDMA is provided. A schematic of a code sequence generator is shown. Spectral plots illustrate direct-sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) and frequency-hopping spread-spectrum (FHSS) methods.
As spread-spectrum techniques become increasingly popular, electrical engineers outside the field are eager for understandable explanations of the technology. There are books and websites on the subject, but many are hard to understand or describe some aspects while ignoring others (e.g., the DSSS technique with extensive focus on PRN-code generation).
To send error-free information for a given noise-to-signal ratio in the channel, therefore, one need only perform the fundamental spread-spectrum signal-spreading operation: increase the transmitted bandwidth. That principle seems simple and evident. Nonetheless, implementation is complex, mainly because spreading the baseband (by a factor that can be several orders of magnitude) forces the electronics to act and react accordingly, which, in turn, makes the spreading and despreading operations necessary.
Different spread-spectrum techniques are available, but all have one idea in common: the key (also called the code or sequence) attached to the communication channel. The manner of inserting this code defines precisely the spread-spectrum technique. The term "spread spectrum" refers to the expansion of signal bandwidth, by several orders of magnitude in some cases, which occurs when a key is attached to the communication channel.
The formal definition of spread spectrum is more precise: an RF communications system in which the baseband signal bandwidth is intentionally spread over a larger bandwidth by injecting a higher frequency signal (Figure 1). As a direct consequence, energy used in transmitting the signal is spread over a wider bandwidth, and appears as noise. The ratio (in dB) between the spread baseband and the original signal is called processing gain. Typical spread-spectrum processing gains run from 10dB to 60dB.
To apply a spread-spectrum technique, simply inject the corresponding spread-spectrum code somewhere in the transmitting chain before the antenna (receiver). (That injection is called the spreading operation.) The effect is to diffuse the information in a larger bandwidth. Conversely, you can remove the spread-spectrum code (called a despreading operation) at a point in the receive chain before data retrieval. A despreading operation reconstitutes the information into its original bandwidth. Obviously, the same code must be known in advance at both ends of the transmission channel. (In some circumstances, the code should be known only by those two parties.)
Spread-spectrum modulation is applied on top of a conventional modulation such as BPSK or direct conversion. One can demonstrate that all other signals not receiving the spread-spectrum code will remain as they are, that is, unspread.
Here a spread-spectrum demodulation has been made on top of the normal demodulation operations. One can also demonstrate that signals such as an interferer or jammer added during the transmission will be spread during the despreading operation!
Spreading results directly in the use of a wider frequency band by a factor that corresponds exactly to the "processing gain" mentioned earlier. Therefore spreading does not spare the limited frequency resource. That overuse is well compensated, however, by the possibility that many users will share the enlarged frequency band (Figure 4).
There are many benefits to spread-spectrum technology. Resistance to interference is the most important advantage. Intentional or unintentional interference and jamming signals are rejected because they do not contain the spread-spectrum key. Only the desired signal, which has the key, will be seen at the receiver when the despreading operation is exercised. See Figure 5.
You can practically ignore the interference, narrowband or wideband, if it does not include the key used in the despreading operation. That rejection also applies to other spread-spectrum signals that do not have the right key. Thus different spread-spectrum communications can be active simultaneously in the same band, such as CDMA. Note that spread spectrum is a wideband technology, but the reverse is not true: wideband techniques need not involve spread-spectrum technology.
Resistance to interception is the second advantage provided by spread-spectrum techniques. Because nonauthorized listeners do not have the key used to spread the original signal, those listeners cannot decode it. Without the right key, the spread-spectrum signal appears as noise or as an interferer. (Scanning methods can break the code, however, if the key is short.) Even better, signal levels can be below the noise floor, because the spreading operation reduces the spectral density. See Figure 6. (Total energy is the same, but it is widely spread in frequency.) The message is thus made invisible, an effect that is particularly strong with the direct-sequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) technique. (DSSS is discussed in greater detail below.) Other receivers cannot "see" the transmission; they only register a slight increase in the overall noise level! 2ff7e9595c
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